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• The clear, easy-to-understand introduction to digital communications
• Completely updated coverage of today's most critical technologies
• Step-by-step implementation coverage
• Trellis-coded modulation, fading channels, Reed-Solomon codes, encryption, and more
• Exclusive coverage of maximizing performance with advanced "turbo codes"

"This is a remarkably comprehensive treatment of the field, covering in considerable detail modulation, coding (both source and channel), encryption, multiple access and spread spectrum. It can serve both as an excellent introduction for the graduate student with some background in probability theory or as a valuable reference for the practicing ommunication system engineer. For both communities, the treatment is clear and well presented."

– Andrew Viterbi, The Viterbi Group

Master every key digital communications technology, concept, and technique.

Digital Communications, Second Edition is a thoroughly revised and updated edition of the field's classic, best-selling introduction. With remarkable clarity, Dr. Bernard Sklar introduces every digital communication technology at the heart of today's wireless and Internet revolutions, providing a unified structure and context for understanding them -- all without sacrificing mathematical precision.

Sklar begins by introducing the fundamentals of signals, spectra, formatting, and baseband transmission. Next, he presents practical coverage of virtually every contemporary modulation, coding, and signal processing technique, with numeric examples and step-by-step implementation guidance. Coverage includes:

• Signals and processing steps: from information source through transmitter, channel, receiver, and information sink
• Key tradeoffs: signal-to-noise ratios, probability of error, and bandwidth expenditure
• Trellis-coded modulation and Reed-Solomon codes: what's behind the math
• Synchronization and spread spectrum solutions
• Fading channels: causes, effects, and techniques for withstanding fading
• The first complete how-to guide to turbo codes: squeezing maximum performance out of digital connections
• Implementing encryption with PGP, the de facto industry standard

Whether you're building wireless systems, xDSL, fiber or coax-based services, satellite networks, or Internet infrastructure, Sklar presents the theory and the practical implementation details you need. With nearly 500 illustrations and 300 problems and exercises, there's never been a faster way to master advanced digital communications.

CD-ROM INCLUDED

The CD-ROM contains a complete educational version of Elanix' SystemView DSP design software, as well as detailed notes for getting started, a comprehensive DSP tutorial, and over 50 additional communications exercises.

• Sales Rank: #78233 in Books
• Published on: 2001-01-21
• Original language: English
• Number of items: 1
• Dimensions: 9.40" h x 1.70" w x 7.20" l, 3.87 pounds
• Binding: Hardcover
• 1079 pages

From the Back Cover

• The clear, easy-to-understand introduction to digital communications
• Completely updated coverage of today's most critical technologies
• Step-by-step implementation coverage
• Trellis-coded modulation, fading channels, Reed-Solomon codes, encryption, and more
• Exclusive coverage of maximizing performance with advanced "turbo codes"

"This is a remarkably comprehensive treatment of the field, covering in considerable detail modulation, coding (both source and channel), encryption, multiple access and spread spectrum. It can serve both as an excellent introduction for the graduate student with some background in probability theory or as a valuable reference for the practicing ommunication system engineer. For both communities, the treatment is clear and well presented." - Andrew Viterbi, The Viterbi Group Master every key digital communications technology, concept, and technique. Digital Communications, Second Edition is a thoroughly revised and updated edition of the field's classic, best-selling introduction. With remarkable clarity, Dr. Bernard Sklar introduces every digital communication technology at the heart of today's wireless and Internet revolutions, providing a unified structure and context for understanding them -- all without sacrificing mathematical precision. Sklar begins by introducing the fundamentals of signals, spectra, formatting, and baseband transmission. Next, he presents practical coverage of virtually every contemporary modulation, coding, and signal processing technique, with numeric examples and step-by-step implementation guidance. Coverage includes:

• Signals and processing steps: from information source through transmitter, channel, receiver, and information sink
• Key tradeoffs: signal-to-noise ratios, probability of error, and bandwidth expenditure
• Trellis-coded modulation and Reed-Solomon codes: what's behind the math
• Synchronization and spread spectrum solutions
• Fading channels: causes, effects, and techniques for withstanding fading
• The first complete how-to guide to turbo codes: squeezing maximum performance out of digital connections
• Implementing encryption with PGP, the de facto industry standard

Whether you're building wireless systems, xDSL, fiber or coax-based services, satellite networks, or Internet infrastructure, Sklar presents the theory and the practical implementation details you need. With nearly 500 illustrations and 300 problems and exercises, there's never been a faster way to master advanced digital communications. CD-ROM INCLUDED The CD-ROM contains a complete educational version of Elanix' SystemView DSP design software, as well as detailed notes for getting started, a comprehensive DSP tutorial, and over 50 additional communications exercises.

About the Author

DR. BERNARD SKLAR has over 40 years of experience in technical design and management positions at Republic Aviation, Hughes Aircraft, Litton Industries, and at The Aerospace Corporation, where he helped develop the MILSTAR satellite system. He is now head of advanced systems at Communications Engineering Services, a consulting company he founded in 1984. He has taught engineering courses at several universities, including UCLA and USC, and has trained professional engineers worldwide.

Excerpt. © Reprinted by permission. All rights reserved.
PREFACEThis second edition of Digital Communications: Fundamentals and Applications represents an update of the original publication. The key features that have been updated are:

• The error-correction coding chapters have been expanded, particularly in the areas of Reed-Solomon codes, turbo codes, and trellis-coded modulation.
• A new chapter on fading channels and how to mitigate the degrading effects of fading has been introduced.
• Explanations and descriptions of essential digital communication concepts have been amplified.
• End-of-chapter problem sets have been expanded. Also, end-of-chapter question sets (and where to find the answers), as well as end-of-chapter CD exercises have been added.
• A compact disc (CD) containing an educational version of the design software SystemView by ELANIX accompanies the textbook. The CD contains a workbook with over 200 exercises, as well as a concise tutorial on digital signal processing (DSP). CD exercises in the workbook reinforce material in the textbook; concepts can be explored by viewing waveforms with a windows-based PC and by changing parameters to see the effects on the overall system. Some of the exercises provide basic training in using SystemView; others provide additional training in DSP techniques.

The teaching of a one-semester university course proceeds in a very different manner compared with that of a short-course in the same subject. At the university, one has the luxury of time—time to develop the needed skills and mathematical tools, time to practice the ideas with homework exercises. In a short-course, the treatment is almost backwards compared with the university. Because of the time factor, a short-course teacher must "jump in" early with essential concepts and applications. One of the vehicles that I found useful in structuring a short course was to start by handing out a check list. This was not merely an outline of the curriculum. It represented a collection of concepts and nomenclature that are not clearly documented, and are often misunderstood. The short-course students were thus initiated into the course by being challenged. I promised them that once they felt comfortable describing each issue, or answering each question on the list, they would be well on their way toward becoming knowledgeable in the field of digital communications. I have learned that this list of essential concepts is just as valuable for teaching full-semester courses as it is for short courses. Here then is my "check list" for digital communications.

What mathematical dilemma is the cause for there being several definitions of bandwidth? (See Section 1.7.2.)

Why is the ratio of bit energy-to-noise power spectral density, Eb/N0 , a natural figure-to-merit for digital communication systems? (See Section 3.1.5.)

When representing timed events, what dilemma can easily result in confusing the most-significant bit (MSB) and the least-significant bit (LSB)? (See Section 3.2.3.1.)

The error performance of digital signaling suffers primarily from two degradation types. a) loss in signal-to-noise ratio, b) distortion resulting in an irreducible bit-error probability. How do they differ? (See Section 3.3.2.)

Often times, providing more Eb/N0 will not mitigate the degradation due to intersymbol interference (ISI). Explain why. (See Section 3.3.2.)

At what location in the system is Eb/N0 defined? (See Section 4.3.2.)

Digital modulation schemes fall into one of two classes with opposite behavior characteristics. a) orthogonal signaling, b) phase/amplitude signaling. Describe the behavior of each class. (See Section 4.8.2 and 9.7.)

Why do binary phase shift keying (BPSK) and quaternary phase shift keying (QPSK) manifest the same bit-error-probability relationship? Does the same hold true for M-ary pulse amplitude modulation (M-PAM) and M 2-ary quadrature amplitude modulation (M 2-QAM) bit-error probability? (See Sections 4.8.4 and 9.8.3.1.)

In orthogonal signaling, why does error-performance improve with higher dimensional signaling? (See Section 4.8.5.)

Why is free-space loss a function of wavelength? (See Section 5.3.3.)

What is the relationship between received signal to noise (S/N) ratio and carrier to noise (C/N) ratio? (See Section 5.4.)

Describe four types of trade-offs that can be accomplished by using an error-correcting code. (See Section 6.3.4.)

Why do traditional error-correcting codes yield error-performance degradation at low values of Eb/N0 ? (See Section 6.3.4.)

Of what use is the standard array in understanding a block code, and in evaluating its capability? (See Section 6.6.5.)

Why is the Shannon limit of -1.6 dB not a useful goal in the design of real systems? (See Section 8.4.5.2.)

16. What are the consequences of the fact that the Viterbi decoding algorithm does not yield a posteriori probabilities? What is a more descriptive name for the Viterbi algorithm? (See Section 8.4.6.)

17. Why do binary and 4-ary orthogonal frequency shift keying (FSK) manifest the same bandwidth-efficiency relationship? (See Section 9.5.1.)

18. Describe the subtle energy and rate transformations of received signals: from data-bits to channel-bits to symbols to chips. (See Section 9.7.7.)

19. Define the following terms: Baud, State, Communications Resource, Chip, Robust Signal. (See Sections 1.1.3 and 7.2.2, Chapter 11, and Sections 12.3.2 and 12.4.2.)

20. In a fading channel, why is signal dispersion independent of fading rapidity? (See Section 15.1.1.1.)

I hope you find it useful to be challenged in this way. Now, let us describe the purpose of the book in a more methodical way. This second edition is intended to provide a comprehensive coverage of digital communication systems for senior level undergraduates, first year graduate students, and practicing engineers. Though the emphasis is on digital communications, necessary analog fundamentals are included since analog waveforms are used for the radio transmission of digital signals. The key feature of a digital communication system is that it deals with a finite set of discrete messages, in contrast to an analog communication system in which messages are defined on a continuum. The objective at the receiver of the digital system is not to reproduce a waveform with precision; it is instead to determine from a noise-perturbed signal, which of the finite set of waveforms had been sent by the transmitter. In fulfillment of this objective, there has arisen an impressive assortment of signal processing techniques.

The book develops these techniques in the context of a unified structure. The structure, in block diagram form, appears at the beginning of each chapter; blocks in the diagram are emphasized, when appropriate, to correspond to the subject of that chapter. Major purposes of the book are to add organization and structure to a field that has grown and continues to grow rapidly, and to insure awareness of the "big picture" even while delving into the details. Signals and key processing steps are traced from the information source through the transmitter, channel, receiver, and ultimately to the information sink. Signal transformations are organized according to nine functional classes: Formatting and source coding, Baseband signaling, Bandpass signaling, Equalization, Channel coding, Muliplexing and multiple access, Spreading, Encryption, and Synchronization. Throughout the book, emphasis is placed on system goals and the need to trade off basic system parameters such as signal-to-noise ratio, probability of error, and bandwidth expenditure.

ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK

Chapter 1 introduces the overall digital communication system and the basic signal transformations that are highlighted in subsequent chapters. Some basic ideas of random variables and the additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) model are reviewed. Also, the relationship between power spectral density and autocorrelation, and the basics of signal transmission through linear systems are established. Chapter 2 covers the signal processing step, known as formatting, in order to render an information signal compatible with a digital system. Chapter 3 emphasizes baseband signaling, the detection of signals in Gaussian noise, and receiver optimization. Chapter 4 deals with bandpass signaling and its associated modulation and demodulation/detection techniques. Chapter 5 deals with link analysis, an important subject for providing overall system insight; it considers some subtleties that are often missed. Chapters 6, 7, and 8 deal with channel coding—a cost-effective way of providing a variety of system performance trade-offs. Chapter 6 emphasizes linear block codes, Chapter 7 deals with convolutional codes, and Chapter 8 deals with Reed-Solomon codes and concatenated codes such as turbo codes.

Chapter 9 considers various modulation/coding system trade-offs dealing with probability of bit-error performance, bandwidth efficiency, and signal-to-noise ratio. It also treats the important area of coded modulation, particularly trellis-coded modulation. Chapter 10 deals with synchronization for digital systems. It covers phase-locked loop implementation for achieving carrier synchronization. It covers bit synchronization, frame synchronization, and network synchronization, and it introduces some ways of performing synchronization using digital methods.

Chapter 11 treats multiplexing and multiple access. It explores techniques that are available for utilizing the communication resource efficiently. Chapter 12 introduces spread spectrum techniques and their application in such areas as multiple access, ranging, and interference rejection. This technology is important for both military and commercial applications. Chapter 13 deals with source coding which is a special class of data formatting. Both formatting and source coding involve digitization of data; the main difference between them is that source coding additionally involves data redundancy reduction. Rather than considering source coding immediately after formatting, it is purposely treated in a later chapter so as not to interrupt the presentation flow of the basic processing steps. Chapter 14 covers basic encryption/decryption ideas. It includes some classical concepts, as well as a class of systems called public key cryptosystems, and the widely used E-mail encryption software known as Pretty Good Privacy (PGP). Chapter 15 deals with fading channels. Here, we deal with applications, such as mobile radios, where characterization of the channel is much more involved than that of a nonfading one. The design of a communication system that will withstand the degradation effects of fading can be much more challenging than the design of its nonfading counterpart. In this chapter, we describe a variety of techniques that can mitigate the effects of fading, and we show some successful designs that have been implemented.

It is assumed that the reader is familiar with Fourier methods and convolution. Appendix A reviews these techniques, emphasizing those properties that are particularly useful in the study of communication theory. It also assumed that the reader has a knowledge of basic probability and has some familiarity with random variables. Appendix B builds on these disciplines for a short treatment on statistical decision theory with emphasis on hypothesis testing—so important in the understanding of detection theory. A new section, Appendix E, has been added to serve as a short tutorial on s-domain, z-domain, and digital filtering. A concise DSP tutorial also appears on the CD that accompanies the book.

If the book is used for a two-term course, a simple partitioning is suggested; the first seven chapters can be taught in the first term, and the last eight chapters in the second term. If the book is used for a one-term introductory course, it is suggested that the course material be selected from the following chapters: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, and 12.

Most helpful customer reviews

63 of 65 people found the following review helpful.
Digital Communications: Fundamentals & Applications, 2nd Ed.
By George Edwards
This is one of the best books on the market for communications. As a university professor I am always looking for that special book that can take the student from the formative learning stage into maturity in the field of communication and signal processing. This book is an excellent text for such a journey. It provides a good mix of theory and practice with many worked examples. Unlike many texts in communications theory that provide their audiences with a lot of theory and abstractions that leave them confused, this book is so well written and the theory so well handled and presented, that its concepts are easily grasped. Then, to supplement this, the book has numerous worked examples showing practical applications. As an educator in the field of communications I have adapted this book for my course because its stated attributes above make my work in educating students that much easier. I recommend this book without reservation to anyone who needs a good reference in the field of communications.

26 of 26 people found the following review helpful.
Good overview but not mathematically rigorous
By Rajesh S. Raghavan
Digital Communications by Sklar is an excellent introduction to the field for the student or the practicing engineer. There is a logical flow from beginning to end, and the book is written in an easy to read style, which allows the reader to grasp the engineering tradeoffs involved in digital communications.
The book is not mathematically rigorous; although formulas are presented, they are not derived. However, I feel that to correct this shortfall may make the book too long, and harder to read. I think it is better to get a general overview of the topic from this book, and to look to other sources where mathematical rigor is desired.
Some additional background is helpful, but not necessary to understand the mathematical details that are glossed over. These include a course in Detection and Estimation to understand concepts such as signal spaces, noise, decision regions and probability of error, and an introductory DSP course to understand the issues surrounding aliasing, quantizing, equalization, and source coding. Familiarity with Fourier Transforms and prior background with Probability and Random Processes is essential to understanding the math that is presented in the book.
Overall, I highly recommend this book for someone who wants to appreciate the engineeering constraints that need to be met in the design of digital communication systems.

13 of 13 people found the following review helpful.
A great book to learn comm. theory.
By miner49
I was introduced to the 1st edition of this book as an undergrad at UCLA where Sklar taught. Since then as I have worked in the wireless and telecom fields, it has remained one of my main references. I've added other comm. books such as Proakis', but Sklar remains my favorite. It is well arrange, making it easy to reference any material you may be interested in. It touches on every area of comm. theory from modulation to coding. If you are looking for a general communication theory reference book, then this should be the one. But if you are only interested in learning in detail about one particular area of commmuncation theory such as CDMA or Trellis Coding, then you should seek a book specializing in that area only. No book can cover everything in the depth.

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Brilliant! Get ready to read this book in one sitting!
By Shani
Bella delivers a fast paced brilliant story as usual. I cannot get enough of The Shade. I love how Caleb and Rose's relationship has developed in this one. This book was action packed and at every turn there was another shocker. No spoilers here. This is a must read and it leaves you wanting more. I'm sure well get alot more in book 12.

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Wow....what a journey
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While this is a longer read at 326 pages it's a surprisingly quick read, the next book 'A Shade of Doubt' is due out 19th April, at least we no longer have the 3 or 4 month wait between books that we used to have which has got to be a good thing.

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Persian, known locally as Farsi, is the official language of modern day Iran and parts of Afghanistan and the central Asian republic of Tajikstan, but historically it was a more widely understood language in an area ranging from the Middle East to India. Significant populations in other Persian Gulf countries also speak Persian. The difference between Dari Persian, mainly spoken in Afghanistan, and Farsi has been compared to the difference between European and Canadian French. Persian is written in the Arabic script but it belongs to the Indo-European family of languages so speakers of European languages should find learning Persian relatively easy to begin with. It is remarkably simple in terms of formal grammar - no gender, no noun inflection and no irregularities in verbal conjugation. 'Teach Yourself Modern Persian (Farsi)' is designed for the true beginner and self-access learner, starting from the basics of learning the Persian alphabet. By the end of the course you'll be able to build complex sentences and communicate in a wide range of everyday situations. There's plenty of practice of each point as it is introduced and the accompanying CDs will help you to improve your speaking and listening skills. The accompanying CDs are available separately (0340 80267 7) or in a pack with the book (0340 80266 9).

• Sales Rank: #8270269 in Books
• Published on: 2004-02-27
• Original language: English
• Number of items: 1
• Dimensions: 7.83" h x .87" w x 5.12" l, .60 pounds
• Binding: Paperback
• 304 pages

About the Author
Narguess Farzad is a lecturer in Persian at the School of Oriental and African Studies, London.

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New York Times bestselling author Chuck Klosterman asks questions that are profound in their simplicity: How certain are we about our understanding of gravity? How certain are we about our understanding of time? What will be the defining memory of rock music, five hundred years from today? How seriously should we view the content of our dreams? How seriously should we view the content of television? Are all sports destined for extinction? Is it possible that the greatest artist of our era is currently unknown (or—weirder still—widely known, but entirely disrespected)? Is it possible that we “overrate” democracy? And perhaps most disturbing, is it possible that we’ve reached the end of knowledge?

Klosterman visualizes the contemporary world as it will appear to those who'll perceive it as the distant past. Kinetically slingshotting through a broad spectrum of objective and subjective problems, But What If We’re Wrong? is built on interviews with a variety of creative thinkers—George Saunders, David Byrne, Jonathan Lethem, Kathryn Schulz, Neil deGrasse Tyson, Brian Greene, Junot Díaz, Amanda Petrusich, Ryan Adams, Nick Bostrom, Dan Carlin, and Richard Linklater, among others—interwoven with the type of high-wire humor and nontraditional analysis only Klosterman would dare to attempt. It’s a seemingly impossible achievement: a book about the things we cannot know, explained as if we did. It’s about how we live now, once “now” has become “then.”


From the Hardcover edition.

• Sales Rank: #19810 in eBooks
• Published on: 2016-06-07
• Released on: 2016-06-07
• Format: Kindle eBook

Review
“Full of intelligence and insights, as the author gleefully turns ideas upside down to better understand them.... This book will become a popular book club selection because it makes readers think. Replete with lots of nifty, whimsical footnotes, this clever, speculative book challenges our beliefs with jocularity and perspicacity.” —Kirkus (starred review)

“Klosterman conducts a series of intriguing thought experiments in this delightful new book...Klosterman’s trademark humor and unique curiosity propel the reader through the book. He remains one of the most insightful critics of pop culture writing today and this is his most thought-provoking and memorable book yet.” —Publishers Weekly (starred review)

“A spin class for the brain… Klosterman challenges readers to reexamine the stability of basic concepts, and in doing so broadens our perspectives…. An engaging and entertaining workout for the mind led by one of today’s funniest and most thought-provoking writers.” —Library Journal (starred review)

“Klosterman is outlining the ideology of a contrarian here and reminding us of the important role that revisionism plays in cultural writing. What matters is the way he thinks about thinking—and the way he makes you think about how you think. And, in the end, this is all that criticism can really hope to do.” —Sonny Bunch, The Washington Post

“[Klosterman’s] most wide-ranging accomplishment to date… As inquisitive, thoughtful and dryly funny as ever, But What If We’re Wrong?... [is] crackling with the writer’s signature wit.” —Will Ashton, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette
 
“In But What If We’re Wrong? [Klosterman] takes on the really big picture . . . He ranges far and wide over the realm of known knowns and known unknowns.” —Brigitte Frase, Minneapolis Star Tribune
 
“I have often wondered how the times I live in will be remembered once they turn into History. It never occurred to me to figure out how to write a book about it, though, which is one of the reasons why Chuck Klosterman is smarter than I am.” —Aimee Levitt, The Chicago Reader

“Klosterman has proven himself an insightful and evolving philosopher for popular consumption . . . In his latest, But What If We’re Wrong?, Klosterman probes the very notions of existence and longevity, resulting perhaps in the most mind-expanding writing of his career.” —Max Kyburz, Gothamist
 
“Chuck Klosterman is no time traveler, but he's got a lot of ideas about how the future will shake out . . . in [But What If We’re Wrong?] he ponders the limits of humanity’s search for truth.” —Chris Weller, Tech Insider
 
“Prolific pop-culture critic Chuck Klosterman tackles his most ambitious project yet in new book But What If We’re Wrong?, which combines research, personal reflections and interviews.” —Alexandra Cavallo, The Improper Bostonian

“This book is brilliant and addictively readable. It's also mandatory reading for anyone who loves history and for anyone who claims to have a capacity for forecasting. It'll probably make them angry because it turns so many sacred assumptions upside down—but that's what the future does. Klosterman's writing style is direct, highly personal and robotically crisp—he's like a stranger on the seat next to you on a plane who gives you a billion dollar idea. A terrific book.” —Douglas Coupland

About the Author
Chuck Klosterman is the bestselling author of seven books of nonfiction (including Sex, Drugs, and Cocoa Puffs and I Wear the Black Hat) and two novels (Downtown Owl and The Visible Man). He has written for The New York Times, The Washington Post, GQ, Esquire, Spin, The Guardian, The Believer, Billboard, The A.V. Club, and ESPN. Klosterman served as the Ethicist for The New York Times Magazine for three years, appeared as himself in the LCD Soundsystem documentary Shut Up and Play the Hits, and was an original founder of the website Grantland with Bill Simmons.

Excerpt. © Reprinted by permission. All rights reserved.
***This excerpt is from an advance uncorrected proof***

Copyright ©2016 Chuck Klosterman

I’ve spent most of my life being wrong.

Not about everything. Just about most things.

I mean, sometimes I get stuff right. I married the right person. I’ve never purchased life insurance as an investment. The first time undrafted free agent Tony Romo led a touchdown drive against the Giants on Monday Night Football, I told my roommate, “I think this guy will have a decent career.” At a New Year’s Eve party in 2008, I predicted Michael Jackson would unexpectedly die within the next twelve months, an anecdote I shall casually recount at every New Year’s party I’ll ever attend for the rest of my life. But these are the exceptions. It is far, far easier for me to catalog the various things I’ve been wrong about: My insistence that I would never own a cell phone. The time I wagered $100—against $1—that Barack Obama would never become president (or even receive the Democratic nomination). My three‑week obsession over the looming Y2K crisis, prompting me to hide bundles of cash, bottled water, and Oreo cookies throughout my one‑ bedroom apartment. At this point, my wrongness doesn’t even surprise me. I almost anticipate it. Whenever people tell me I’m wrong about something, I might disagree with them in conversation, but—in my mind—I assume their accusation is justified, even when I’m relatively certain they’re wrong, too.

Yet these failures are small potatoes.

These micro‑moments of wrongness are personal: I assumed the answer to something was “A,” but the true answer was “B” or “C” or “D.” Reasonable parties can disagree on the unknowable, and the passage of time slowly proves one party to be slightly more reasonable than the other. The stakes are low. If I’m wrong about something specific, it’s (usually) my own fault, and someone else is (usually, but not totally) right.

But what about the things we’re all wrong about?

What about ideas that are so accepted and internalized that we’re not even in a position to question their fallibility? These are ideas so ingrained in the collective consciousness that it seems fool‑ hardy to even wonder if they’re potentially untrue. Sometimes these seem like questions only a child would ask, since children aren’t paralyzed by the pressures of consensus and common sense. It’s a dissonance that creates the most unavoidable of intellectual paradoxes: When you ask smart people if they believe there are major ideas currently accepted by the culture at large that will eventually be proven false, they will say, “Well, of course. There must be. That phenomenon has been experienced by every generation who’s ever lived, since the dawn of human history.” Yet offer those same people a laundry list of contemporary ideas that might fit that description, and they’ll be tempted to reject them all.

It is impossible to examine questions we refuse to ask. These are the big potatoes.

 

Like most people, I like to think of myself as a skeptical person. But I’m pretty much in the tank for gravity. It’s the natural force most recognized as perfunctorily central to everything we under‑ stand about everything else. If an otherwise well‑executed argument contradicts the principles of gravity, the argument is inevitably altered to make sure that it does not. The fact that I’m not a physicist makes my adherence to gravity especially unyielding, since I don’t know anything about gravity that wasn’t told to me by someone else. My confidence in gravity is absolute, and I believe this will be true until the day I die (and if someone subsequently throws my dead body out of a window, I believe my corpse’s rate of acceleration will be 9.8 m/s2).

And I’m probably wrong.

Maybe not completely, but partially. And maybe not today, but eventually.

“There is a very, very good chance that our understanding of gravity will not be the same in five hundred years. In fact, that’s the one arena where I would think that most of our contemporary evidence is circumstantial, and that the way we think about gravity will be very different.” These are the words of Brian Greene, a theoretical physicist at Columbia University who writes books with titles like Icarus at the Edge of Time. He’s the kind of physicist famous enough to guest star on a CBS sitcom, assuming that sit‑ com is The Big Bang Theory. “For two hundred years, Isaac Newton had gravity down. There was almost no change in our thinking until 1907. And then from 1907 to 1915, Einstein radically changes our understanding of gravity: No longer is gravity just a force, but a warping of space and time. And now we realize quantum mechanics must have an impact on how we describe gravity within very short distances. So there’s all this work that really starts to pick up in the 1980s, with all these new ideas about how gravity would work in the microscopic realm. And then string theory comes along, trying to understand how gravity behaves on a small scale, and that gives us a description—which we don’t know to be right or wrong—that equates to a quantum theory of gravity. Now, that requires extra dimensions of space. So the understanding of gravity starts to have radical implications for our understanding of reality. And now there are folks, inspired by these findings, who are trying to rethink gravity itself. They suspect gravity might not even be a fundamental force, but an emergent1 force. So I do think—and I think many would agree—that gravity is the least stable of our ideas, and the most ripe for a major shift.”

If that sounds confusing, don’t worry—I was confused when Greene explained it to me as I sat in his office

 

1 This means that gravity might just be a manifestation of other forces—not a force itself, but the peripheral result of something else. Greene’s analogy was with the idea of temperature: Our skin can sense warmth on a hot day, but “warmth” is not some independent thing that exists on its own. Warmth is just the consequence of invisible atoms moving around very fast, creating the sensation of temperature. We feel it, but it’s not really there. So if gravity were an emergent force, it would mean that gravity isn’t the central power pulling things to the Earth, but the tangential consequence of something else we can’t yet explain. We feel it, but it’s not there. It would almost make the whole idea of “gravity” a semantic construction.

(and he explained it to me twice). There are essential components to physics and math that I will never understand in any functional way, no matter what I read or how much time I invest. A post‑gravity world is beyond my comprehension. But the concept of a post‑gravity world helps me think about something else: It helps me understand the pre‑ gravity era. And I don’t mean the days before Newton published Principia in 1687, or even that period from the late 1500s when Galileo was (allegedly) dropping balls off the Leaning Tower of Pisa and inadvertently inspiring the Indigo Girls. By the time those events occurred, the notion of gravity was already drifting through the scientific ether. Nobody had pinned it down, but the mathematical intelligentsia knew Earth was rotating around the sun in an elliptical orbit (and that something was making this hap‑ pen). That was around three hundred years ago. I’m more fixated on how life was another three hundred years before that. Here was a period when the best understanding of why objects did not spontaneously f loat was some version of what Aristotle had argued more than a thousand years prior: He believed all objects craved their “natural place,” and that this place was the geocentric center of the universe, and that the geocentric center of the universe was Earth. In other words, Aristotle believed that a dropped rock fell to the earth because rocks belonged on earth and wanted to be there.

So let’s consider the magnitude of this shift: Aristotle—arguably the greatest philosopher who ever lived—writes the book Physics and defines his argument. His view exists unchallenged for almost two thousand years. Newton (history’s most meaningful mathematician, even to this day) eventually watches an apocryphal apple fall from an apocryphal tree and inverts the entire human under‑ standing of why the world works as it does. Had this been explained to those people in the fourteenth century with no understanding of science—in other words, pretty much everyone else alive in the fourteenth century—Newton’s explanation would have seemed way, way crazier than what they currently believed: Instead of claiming that Earth’s existence defined reality and that there was something essentialist about why rocks acted like rocks, Newton was advocating an invisible, imperceptible force field that some‑ how anchored the moon in place.

We now know (“know”) that Newton’s concept was correct. Humankind had been collectively, objectively wrong for roughly twenty centuries. Which provokes three semi‑related questions:

 

   • If mankind could believe something false was objectively true for two thousand years, why do we ref lexively assume that our current understanding of gravity—which we’ve embraced for a mere three hundred fifty years—will some‑ how exist forever?
   • Is it possible that this type of problem has simply been solved? What if Newton’s answer really is—more or less— thefinalanswer, and the only one we will ever need? Because if that is true, it would mean we’re at the end of a process that has defined the experience of being alive. It would mean certain intellectual quests would no longer be necessary.
   • Which statement is more reasonable to make: “I believe grav‑ ity exists” or “I’m 99.9 percent certain that gravity exists”? Certainly, the second statement issafer. But if we’re going to acknowledge even the slightest possibility of being wrong about gravity, we’re pretty much giving up on the possibility of being right about anything at all.

 

There’s a popular website that sells books (and if you purchased this particular book, consumer research suggests there’s a 41 per‑ cent chance you ordered it from this particular site). Book sales constitute only about 7 percent of this website’s total sales, but books are the principal commodity this enterprise is known for. Part of what makes the site successful is its user‑generated con‑ tent; consumers are given the opportunity to write reviews of their various purchases, even if they never actually consumed the book they’re critiquing. Which is amazing, particularly if you want to read negative, one‑star reviews of Herman Melville’s Moby-Dick.

“Pompous, overbearing, self‑indulgent, and insufferable. This is the worst book I’ve ever read,” wrote one dissatisfied customer in 2014. “Weak narrative, poor structure, incomplete plot threads, ¾ of the chapters are extraneous, and the author often confuses himself with the protagonist. One chapter is devoted to the fact that whales don’t have noses. Another is on the color white.” Interestingly, the only other purchase this person elected to review was a Hewlett‑Packard printer that can also send faxes, which he awarded two stars.

I can’t dispute this person’s distaste for Moby-Dick. I’m sure he did hate reading it. But his choice to state this opinion in public— almost entirely devoid of critical context, unless you count his take on the HP printer—is more meaningful than the opinion itself. Publicly attacking Moby-Dick is shorthand for arguing that what we’re socialized to believe about art is fundamentally questionable. Taste is subjective, but some subjective opinions are casually expressed the same way we articulate principles of math or science. There isn’t an ongoing cultural debate over the merits of Moby- Dick: It’s not merely an epic novel, but a transformative literary innovation that helps define how novels are supposed to be viewed. Any discussion about the clichéd concept of “the Great American Novel” begins with this book. The work itself is not above criticism, but no individual criticism has any impact; at this point, attacking Moby-Dick only reflects the contrarianism of the critic. We all start from the supposition that Moby-Dick is accepted as self‑evidently awesome, including (and perhaps especially) those who disagree with that assertion.

So how did this happen?

Melville publishes Moby-Dick in 1851, basing his narrative on the real‑life 1839 account of a murderous sperm whale nicknamed “Mocha Dick.” The initial British edition is around nine hundred pages. Melville, a moderately successful author at the time of the novel’s release, assumes this book will immediately be seen as a masterwork. This is his premeditated intention throughout the writing process. But the reviews are mixed, and some are contemptuous (“it repels the reader” is the key takeaway from one of the very first reviews in the London Spectator). It sells poorly—at the time of Melville’s death, total sales hover below five thousand copies. The failure ruins Melville’s life: He becomes an alcoholic and a poet, and eventually a customs inspector. When he dies destitute in 1891, one has to assume his perspective on Moby-Dick is some‑ thing along the lines of “Well, I guess that didn’t work. Maybe I should have spent fewer pages explaining how to tie complicated knots.” For the next thirty years, nothing about the reception of this book changes. But then World War I happens, and—somehow, and for reasons that can’t be totally explained2—modernists living in postwar America start to view literature through a different lens. There is a Melville revival. The concept of what a novel is supposed to accomplish shifts in his direction and amplifies with each passing generation, eventually prompting people (like the 2005 director of Columbia University’s American studies pro‑ gram) to classify Moby-Dick as “the most ambitious book ever conceived by an American writer.” Pundits and cranks can disagree with that assertion, but no one cares if they do. Melville’s place in history is secure, almost as if he were an explorer or an inventor: When the prehistoric remains of a previously unknown predatory whale were discovered in Peru in 2010, the massive creature was eventually named Livyatan melvillei. A century after his death, Melville gets his own extinct super‑whale named after him, in tribute to a book that commercially tanked. That’s an interesting kind of career.

Now, there’s certainly a difference between collective, objective wrongness (e.g., misunderstanding gravity for twenty centuries) and collective, subjective wrongness (e.g., not caring about Moby- Dick for seventy‑five years). The machinations of the transitionsare completely different. Yet both scenarios hint at a practical reality and a modern problem. The practical reality is that any present‑tense version of the world is unstable. What we currently consider to be true—both objectively and subjectively—is habitually provisional. But the modern problem is that reevaluating what we consider “true” is becoming increasingly difficult. Superficially, it’s become easier for any one person to dispute the status quo: Everyone has a viable platform to criticize Moby-Dick (or, I suppose, a mediocre HP printer). If there’s a rogue physicist in Winnipeg who doesn’t believe in gravity, he can self‑publish a book that outlines his argument and potentially attract a larger audience than Principia found during its first hundred years of existence. But increasing the capacity for the reconsideration of ideas is not the same as actually changing those ideas (or even allowing them to change by their own momentum).

We live in an age where virtually no content is lost and virtually all content is shared. The sheer amount of information about every current idea makes those concepts difficult to contradict, particularly in a framework where public consensus has become the ultimate arbiter of validity. In other words, we’re starting to behave as if we’ve reached the end of human knowledge. And while that notion is undoubtedly false, the sensation of certitude it generates is paralyzing.

 

In her book Being Wrong, author Kathryn Schulz spends a few key pages on the concept of “naïve realism.” Schulz notes that while there are few conscious proponents of naïve realism, “that doesn’t mean there are no naïve realists.” I would go a step further than Schulz; I suspect most conventionally intelligent people are naïve realists, and I think it might be the defining intellectual quality of this era. The straightforward definition of naïve realism doesn’t seem that outlandish: It’s a theory that suggests the world is exactly as it appears. Obviously, this viewpoint creates a lot of opportunity for colossal wrongness (e.g., “The sun appears to move across the sky, so the sun must be orbiting Earth”). But my personal characterization of naïve realism is wider and more insidious. I think it operates as the manifestation of two ingrained beliefs:

 

   • “When considering any question, I must be rational and logical, to the point of dismissing any unverifiable data as preposterous,” and
   • “When considering any question, I’m going to assume that the information we currently have is all the information that will ever be available.”

 

Here’s an extreme example: the possibility of life after death. When considered rationally, there is no justification for believing that anything happens to anyone upon the moment of his or her death. There is no reasonable counter to the prospect of nothing‑ ness. Any anecdotal story about “floating toward a white light” or Shirley MacLaine’s past life on Atlantis or the details in Heaven Is for Real are automatically (and justifiably) dismissed by any secular intellectual. Yet this wholly logical position discounts the over‑ whelming likelihood that we currently don’t know something critical about the experience of life, much less the ultimate conclusion to that experience. There are so many things we don’t know about energy, or the way energy is transferred, or why energy (which can’t be created or destroyed) exists at all. We can’t truly conceive the conditions of a multidimensional reality, even though we’re (probably) already living inside one. We have a limited under‑ standing of consciousness. We have a limited understanding of time, and of the

perception of time, and of the possibility that all time is happening at once. So while it seems unrealistic to seriously

 

2 The qualities that spurred this rediscovery can, arguably, be quantified: The isolation and brotherhood the sailors experience mirrors the experience of fight‑ ing in a war, and the battle against a faceless evil whale could be seen as a metaphor for the battle against the faceless abstraction of evil Germany. But the fact that these details can be quantified is still not a satisfactory explanation as to why Moby-Dick became the specific novel that was selected and elevated. It’s not like Moby-Dick is the only book that could have served this role.

consider the prospect of life after death, it seems equally naïve to assume that our contemporary understanding of this phenomenon is remotely complete. We have no idea what we don’t know, or what we’ll eventually learn, or what might be true despite our perpetual inability to comprehend what that truth is.

It’s impossible to understand the world of today until today has become tomorrow.

This is no brilliant insight, and only a fool would disagree. But it’s remarkable how habitually this truth is ignored. We constantly pretend our perception of the present day will not seem ludicrous in retrospect, simply because there doesn’t appear to be any other option. Yet there is another option, and the option is this: We must start from the premise that—in all likelihood—we are already wrong. And not “wrong” in the sense that we are examining questions and coming to incorrect conclusions, because most of our conclusions are reasoned and coherent. The problem is with the questions themselves.

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7 of 7 people found the following review helpful.
I read a lot of the reviews and they seem split between disappointment that the Klosterman of old
By Aladeen
I always look forward to a new Chuck Klosterman book, and this one delivered the goods, but not in a way that I was expecting. I read a lot of the reviews and they seem split between disappointment that the Klosterman of old, the insatiably curious pop culturist, has moved on to bigger and more abstract topics. In my opinion, we've seen that he can deconstruct "The Real World"...I am personally glad that he's trying to figure out reality, whether or not we can trust recorded history, the essence of time, etc. He is really hunting big game, here. The reader has to pay close attention so there's some work involved. It reminds me of when someone very smart is explaining something quite complicated and the explanation requires you to hang in with them so that you don't lose the train of thought. If your mind wanders of onto tangents, you're going to lose it, and even then you still might not be able to explain it later to your friends, but it was exciting just to follow the thought process as it unfolded. I hope he keeps doing this kind of stuff.

6 of 6 people found the following review helpful.
Interesting premise; weak development
By steve c.
There is little to take away from the author's bold undertaking. Each chapter sets out big questions, but provides little substance. Author seems more concerned with amusing and contradicting himself, as opposed to developing logical and thoughts provoking theories. Disappointing.

1 of 1 people found the following review helpful.
Rough around the edges but more than worthwhile
By Anjan Patnaik
Klosterman is engaging in an interesting thought exercise. He's trying to problematics certainty by making arguments about how uncertain things can be. And while he often meanders and sometimes posits questionable premises of his own to further his argument, he's ingeniously protected by the underlying assumption of his project: that what seems to be wrong might be worth looking at (this of
Course has its own set of logical circles to run). But if you view his book more as a reflection on our collective cultural evaluation of academia, athletics , arts and everything else you get a truly interesting and entertaining ideation of how we've done things and how we might continue to do them.

Klosterman has written a book that at the very least points the so called epl-jersey wearing Donnie Dario attending hipsters a direction for becoming cultural experts and at best provides some insight into how we process genius and change (rationally and not)

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Are you skittish about painting animals in your landscapes? Here's just what you need to find the confidence to draw your favorite pets and wildlife. Includes tips on finding subjects, using photographs and working on location.

• Sales Rank: #1450815 in Books
• Brand: Brand: David n Charles UK
• Published on: 1997-08
• Original language: English
• Number of items: 1
• Dimensions: 11.75" h x 8.00" w x .75" l,
• Binding: Hardcover
• 128 pages

Features

• Used Book in Good Condition

From Library Journal
Birch has illustrated over 150 books and is a specialist in depicting animals. Here, she has produced the best general manual on the subject?one that many artists find awkward. Using a variety of media, Birch begins with simplified forms, focuses on silhouettes, ears, and eyes, then turns to movement and personality. She ends with a fine section on composition and placing animals within natural contexts. This is a more satisfying and sophisticated volume than former Disney artist Bill Tilton's Drawing & Painting Animals (LJ
Copyright 1997 Reed Business Information, Inc.

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1 of 1 people found the following review helpful.
Inspirational
By Susan Richards
Very thorough. Lots of beautiful examples, and a great resource for working with several media. Precise instructions and suggestions for achieving wonderful effects.

16 of 17 people found the following review helpful.
A book to treasure
By A Customer
This book's modest title fauils to describe its full worth. It is full of good sense, sound technical information and really excellent drawing. Linda Birch has a mastery of all media,and her writing displays the confidence of a gifted teacher. Her authority stems partly from her own obvious love of animals and her careful observation of them. She faces the question "Oh dear, I shall never be able to do that" with an encouraging "Yes you can, and I will show you how". Everything is here - texture, movement, anatomy, all brought together through many years of experience of teaching. Linda offers regular painting courses in Durham, and in other parts of England. Her students will be very fortunate, having the benefit of the fluency and wit which shines from these pages. A book to treasure.

5 of 9 people found the following review helpful.
An ideal introduction for beginners.
By Midwest Book Review
Linda Birch's How To Draw And Paint Animals tells how to draw animals using pencil, charcoal, line and watercolor, with color photos and drawings of both finished and half-complete subjects making for an excellent guide.

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• Published on: 2005
• Binding: Single Issue Magazine

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0 of 0 people found the following review helpful.
Five Stars
By Jon Juergensen
Exactly as described

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• Published on: 2005
• Binding: Paperback

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